Editing Brutalism (section)

== Characteristics ==

Brutalist architecture employs concrete as both structure and finish, its rough surface textures left exposed rather than covered with applied materials. Buildings express their construction honestly: structural members appear on facades; mechanical systems receive visible housing; circulation elements like stairs and elevators occupy distinct volumes. Forms tend toward the massive and geometric, with heavy concrete elements cantilevered, stacked, or interlocked in compositions of considerable visual weight. Windows appear as punched openings in thick walls or as continuous bands that emphasize horizontal layering.<ref name="tatum">{{cite book |last=Tatum |first=George B. |title=Penn's Great Town: 250 Years of Philadelphia Architecture |year=1961 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia}}</ref>

The style draws from Le Corbusier's late work, particularly the Unité d'Habitation in Marseilles, which demonstrated concrete's sculptural possibilities at residential scale. British architects, including Peter and Alison Smithson, developed Brutalism as both aesthetic program and ethical stance—an "honest" architecture that refused cosmetic concealment of construction. American architects adopted the style for institutional purposes, finding in concrete's mass and permanence appropriate expression for universities, government buildings, and cultural institutions.<ref name="banham"/>