Second Continental Congress

Second Continental Congress was the governing body of the thirteen American colonies and later the United States that convened in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, and continued meeting in various locations until the ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1781. Meeting initially at the Pennsylvania State House (now Independence Hall), the Congress took on the functions of a national government during the Revolutionary War, organizing the Continental Army, conducting diplomacy, issuing currency, and ultimately declaring independence from Great Britain. The Congress appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief, adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, and guided the new nation through the war years. Though lacking formal constitutional authority or the power to tax, the Second Continental Congress served as the de facto government of the United States during the most critical period of its founding.

Convening Amid Crisis

The Second Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia at a moment of real crisis. Fighting had broken out at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, just three weeks before Congress was scheduled to reconvene. Militia forces from across New England had surrounded British troops in Boston. There was no sign of resolution. When delegates gathered at the State House, they faced something entirely different from what the First Continental Congress had confronted: they weren't trying to pressure Parliament anymore. They were managing an armed rebellion against the world's most powerful empire.

Many veterans of the First Continental Congress returned, alongside newcomers who'd shape the revolution. Benjamin Franklin had just come back from London, where he'd served as Pennsylvania's colonial agent. He brought decades of political experience and international connections with him. Thomas Jefferson, a young Virginia lawyer, arrived with a reputation as a skilled writer. John Hancock of Massachusetts became president of the Congress, replacing Peyton Randolph of Virginia. The delegates ranged from those ready to declare independence to conservatives still hoping for reconciliation with Britain. Steering between these factions while running a war would push the Congress's political abilities to the breaking point.

Creating an Army

The most urgent task was simple in concept but brutally hard to execute: turn the militia besieging Boston into a Continental Army that could actually fight British regulars. On June 14, 1775, Congress voted to adopt the New England militia as a continental force and to raise rifle companies from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. The next day, Congress appointed George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief. This choice reflected both Washington's military background and political necessity—putting a Southerner in charge of what had started as a New England army mattered. Washington headed to Massachusetts immediately, arriving at Cambridge on July 2 to take command of the forces surrounding Boston.

Building an actual army was extraordinarily difficult. Congress couldn't conscript soldiers, relying instead on state quotas and volunteers who often didn't show up. It couldn't levy taxes either, depending on state requisitions and loans that became harder to get as the war dragged on. The army that resulted was perpetually undersupplied and underpaid. Short enlistments were everywhere. Desertion plagued every campaign. Yet somehow Washington and the Continental Army endured. They won enough battles to keep the revolution alive and lost enough to learn from failure. The tension between Congress and the military was real, but the civilian control of the army established during these years became foundational to American government.

The Decision for Independence

During fall 1775 and into 1776, views inside Congress shifted toward independence. The Olive Branch Petition, which had sought reconciliation with the Crown, had failed. That showed the British government wouldn't negotiate. Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" came out in January 1776 and turned public opinion against monarchy and toward independence. Parliament's Prohibitory Act, which declared the colonies in rebellion and allowed seizure of American ships, convinced many moderates that reconciliation was impossible. By spring 1776, several colonial legislatures had authorized their delegates to vote for independence.

Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution on June 7, 1776: "that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." Congress debated it for several days before postponing the vote. They needed time for reluctant delegations to get new instructions. Meanwhile, a committee was appointed to draft a formal declaration explaining why independence was necessary. The committee included Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. Jefferson did the actual writing, producing a draft that the committee revised before sending it to Congress. On July 2, 1776, Congress voted to approve Lee's resolution. Four days later, on July 4, after more debate and revision, it approved the text of the Declaration of Independence.

Government in Exile

Britain captured Philadelphia in September 1777, forcing Congress to leave the city. They moved first to Lancaster, then to York, Pennsylvania, where they stayed until the British evacuated Philadelphia in June 1778. This period of wandering government was rough and sometimes discouraging. Still, it showed something important: the Congress could govern anywhere, not just in Philadelphia. The revolutionary government's legitimacy didn't depend on holding the city. It rested on the continued support of the states and the Continental Army's ability to fight on.

While in York, Congress finished and submitted the Articles of Confederation to the states for ratification. John Dickinson had drafted them primarily in 1776 and 1777. They formalized the Continental Congress as a permanent government, but with careful limits on its power. Each state kept sovereignty over most matters. Congress handled foreign affairs and war mainly. The Articles needed every state's approval, which took until 1781 because of disputes over western land. In the meantime, the Continental Congress kept governing without formal constitutional backing. That situation said something about where the government came from and the trust that held it together.

Financing the Revolution

Congress faced an enormous problem throughout the war: it needed to pay for the military but couldn't tax anyone. The Continental Congress started printing paper money in 1775, promising states would redeem the notes later through taxation. As the war went on and the money supply grew, Continental currency lost value fast. That's where the phrase "not worth a Continental" came from. By 1780, Continental dollars had dropped to about one-fortieth of their face value. This devastated soldiers and creditors who'd taken payment in the worthless currency. Congress tried requisitioning specific supplies from the states instead of money. That worked only slightly better.

Loans from overseas, mainly France, kept the revolution going. Benjamin Franklin, working as American minister to France, secured vital financial support and eventually the military alliance that turned the war around. Dutch bankers lent money too, betting on America's prospects despite the risk. These foreign debts, plus domestic obligations, would burden the new nation for years after independence. They contributed to the money troubles that eventually prompted the Constitutional Convention. Congress couldn't pay what it owed, which undercut its authority and gave strong arguments for a more powerful national government under the Constitution.

Legacy

In 1781, when the Articles of Confederation took effect, the Second Continental Congress disbanded. The Confederation Congress took over. But the Second Continental Congress's impact didn't end there. It had declared independence. It'd conducted a successful war. It negotiated international alliances. It set the precedents and practices for American national government. The relationships and disagreements among delegates shaped the political alignments of the early republic. The Congress's struggles with money, administration, and working between states showed the weaknesses the Constitution would try to fix. Independence Hall, where the Congress met during most of its time, became a symbol of American democracy. It commemorates the body that turned thirteen colonies into an independent nation.

See Also

• Independence Hall
• Declaration of Independence
• First Continental Congress
• Constitutional Convention
• Benjamin Franklin