Second Continental Congress

Second Continental Congress was the governing body of the thirteen American colonies and later the United States that convened in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, and continued meeting in various locations until the ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1781. Meeting initially at the Pennsylvania State House (now Independence Hall), the Congress assumed the functions of a national government during the Revolutionary War, organizing the Continental Army, conducting diplomacy, issuing currency, and ultimately declaring independence from Great Britain. The Congress appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief, adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, and guided the new nation through the war years. Though lacking formal constitutional authority or the power to tax, the Second Continental Congress served as the de facto government of the United States during the most critical period of its founding.

Convening Amid Crisis

When the Second Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia, the colonies were already at war. Fighting had broken out at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, three weeks before the scheduled reconvening of Congress. Militia forces from throughout New England had besieged British troops in Boston, and the conflict showed no signs of resolution. The delegates who gathered at the State House faced a fundamentally different situation than their predecessors at the First Continental Congress: they were no longer seeking to pressure Parliament into policy changes but managing an armed rebellion against the world's most powerful empire.

The Congress included many veterans of the First Continental Congress along with newcomers who would shape the revolutionary movement. Benjamin Franklin, recently returned from London where he had served as Pennsylvania's colonial agent, brought decades of political experience and international connections. Thomas Jefferson, a young Virginia lawyer, arrived with a reputation as a skilled writer. John Hancock of Massachusetts was elected president of the Congress, replacing Peyton Randolph of Virginia. The delegates represented the full spectrum of colonial opinion, from those ready to declare independence to conservatives who still hoped for reconciliation with Britain. Navigating between these factions while prosecuting a war would test the Congress's political skills to their limits.

Creating an Army

The Congress's most urgent task was to transform the militia forces besieging Boston into a Continental Army capable of sustained operations against British regulars. On June 14, 1775, Congress voted to adopt the New England militia as a continental force and to raise rifle companies from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. The following day, Congress appointed George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief, a choice that reflected both Washington's military experience and the political necessity of placing a Southerner at the head of what was initially a New England army. Washington departed for Massachusetts immediately, arriving at Cambridge on July 2 to assume command of the forces investing Boston.

Building an army proved extraordinarily difficult. The Congress lacked the authority to conscript soldiers, depending instead on state quotas and voluntary enlistment. It could not levy taxes, relying on requisitions from the states and loans that proved increasingly difficult to secure. The resulting army was perpetually undersupplied and underpaid, plagued by short enlistments and chronic desertion. Yet somehow Washington and the Continental Army endured, winning enough victories to sustain the revolution and losing enough battles to learn from their mistakes. The relationship between Congress and the military was often strained, but the civilian control of the army established during these years became a fundamental principle of American government.

The Decision for Independence

Through the fall of 1775 and into 1776, sentiment within Congress shifted toward independence. The failure of the Olive Branch Petition, which had sought reconciliation with the Crown, demonstrated that the British government would not negotiate. The publication of Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" in January 1776 galvanized public opinion against monarchy and for independence. News of Parliament's Prohibitory Act, which declared the colonies in rebellion and authorized seizure of American ships, convinced many moderates that reconciliation was impossible. By the spring of 1776, instructions from several colonial legislatures authorized their delegates to vote for independence.

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution declaring "that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." Congress debated the resolution for several days before postponing a final vote to allow time for reluctant delegations to receive new instructions. Meanwhile, Congress appointed a committee to draft a formal declaration explaining the reasons for independence. The committee—Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston—delegated the actual writing to Jefferson, who produced a draft that the committee revised before submitting to Congress. On July 2, 1776, Congress voted to approve Lee's resolution, and on July 4, after further debate and revision, approved the text of the Declaration of Independence.

Government in Exile

The British capture of Philadelphia in September 1777 forced Congress to flee the city, beginning a period of itinerant government that would last until the war's end. Congress relocated first to Lancaster, then to York, Pennsylvania, where it remained until the British evacuation of Philadelphia in June 1778. The experience of government in exile was difficult and sometimes dispiriting, but it also demonstrated that the Congress could function apart from any particular location. The legitimacy of the revolutionary government rested not on possession of Philadelphia but on the continued allegiance of the states and the success of the Continental Army.

During the York exile, Congress completed and submitted the Articles of Confederation to the states for ratification. The Articles, drafted primarily by John Dickinson in 1776-1777, formalized the structure of the Continental Congress as a permanent government while carefully limiting its powers. The states retained sovereignty over most matters, with Congress possessing authority primarily over foreign affairs and war. The Articles required unanimous state approval for ratification, a process that would not be completed until 1781 due to disputes over western land claims. In the meantime, the Continental Congress continued to govern without formal constitutional authority, a situation that reflected both the revolutionary origins of the government and the mutual trust that sustained it.

Financing the Revolution

The Congress's greatest challenge throughout the war was financing military operations without the power to tax. The Continental Congress issued paper currency beginning in 1775, pledging that the states would redeem the notes through future taxation. As the war continued and the money supply expanded, the value of Continental currency plummeted—giving rise to the phrase "not worth a Continental." By 1780, Continental dollars had depreciated to roughly one-fortieth of their face value, devastating soldiers and creditors who had accepted payment in the currency. The financial crisis prompted Congress to requisition specific supplies from the states rather than money, a system that proved only marginally more effective.

Foreign loans, primarily from France, helped sustain the revolutionary effort. Benjamin Franklin, serving as American minister to France, secured crucial financial support and eventually the military alliance that proved decisive in the war. Dutch bankers also provided loans, attracted by American prospects despite the risks. These foreign debts, along with domestic obligations, would burden the new nation for years after independence, contributing to the financial difficulties that eventually prompted the Constitutional Convention. The Congress's inability to meet its financial obligations undermined its authority and provided powerful arguments for strengthening the national government under the Constitution.

Legacy

The Second Continental Congress disbanded in 1781 when the Articles of Confederation took effect, transferring authority to the Confederation Congress. Its legacy, however, extended far beyond its formal existence. The Congress had declared independence, conducted a successful war, negotiated international alliances, and established the precedents and practices of American national government. The relationships and conflicts among delegates shaped the political alignments of the early republic, while the Congress's struggles with finance, administration, and interstate cooperation revealed the weaknesses that the Constitution would attempt to address. Independence Hall, where the Congress met for most of its existence, became a symbol of American democracy, commemorating the body that transformed thirteen colonies into an independent nation.

See Also

• Independence Hall
• Declaration of Independence
• First Continental Congress
• Constitutional Convention
• Benjamin Franklin