Declaration of Independence

Declaration of Independence is the foundational document of the United States, adopted by the Second Continental Congress at the Pennsylvania State House (now Independence Hall) in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. Written primarily by Thomas Jefferson and revised by the Congress, the Declaration announced the separation of the thirteen American colonies from Great Britain and articulated the philosophical principles justifying that separation—most famously, that "all men are created equal" and possess "unalienable Rights" to "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." The Declaration transformed a colonial rebellion into a revolution grounded in universal principles, influencing democratic movements around the world for over two centuries. Though the original engrossed parchment copy resides at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., the story of the Declaration is inseparable from Philadelphia, where it was written, debated, adopted, and first proclaimed to the public.

Road to Independence

The decision to declare independence emerged gradually from escalating conflict between Britain and its American colonies. The First Continental Congress of 1774 had organized resistance to British policies while affirming allegiance to the Crown. The outbreak of fighting at Lexington and Concord in April 1775 transformed the conflict into armed rebellion, but even then many colonists hoped for reconciliation. The Second Continental Congress sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III in July 1775, seeking peaceful resolution, but the King refused to receive it and declared the colonies in rebellion. By early 1776, the publication of Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" had galvanized public opinion toward independence, attacking not only British policy but the institution of monarchy itself.

The Continental Congress moved toward independence in stages. On May 10, 1776, Congress advised the colonies to form new governments independent of British authority. On June 7, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution declaring "that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." Congress debated the resolution but postponed a final vote to allow delegates from reluctant colonies to seek new instructions. Meanwhile, Congress appointed a Committee of Five—Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston—to draft a formal declaration explaining the reasons for independence. The committee assigned the actual writing to Jefferson, who produced a draft in approximately seventeen days at his lodgings in the Graff House on Market Street.

Drafting and Revision

Jefferson's draft drew on several intellectual traditions. The language of natural rights and social contract theory echoed the writings of John Locke and other Enlightenment philosophers. The specific grievances against King George III followed a tradition of English constitutional argument dating to the Magna Carta. Jefferson also borrowed from his own earlier work, particularly the preamble to the Virginia Constitution he had drafted weeks before. The opening passages establishing the philosophical basis for independence—the equality of all men, their natural rights, and the right to alter or abolish governments that violate those rights—represented Jefferson's synthesis of ideas circulating throughout the Atlantic world.

The Committee of Five reviewed Jefferson's draft and suggested revisions, with Franklin and Adams making the most significant changes. The committee's draft was then submitted to Congress on June 28, 1776. On July 2, Congress voted to approve Lee's resolution for independence—the actual moment of legal separation from Britain. Over the next two days, Congress debated the Declaration's text, making substantial revisions. Most notably, Congress deleted Jefferson's denunciation of the slave trade, which blamed King George for imposing slavery on the colonies—a passage that delegates from Georgia and South Carolina found objectionable and that Northern delegates engaged in the slave trade could not credibly support. Jefferson later complained about Congress's editing, but the revisions generally strengthened the document.

Adoption and Proclamation

Congress approved the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, a date that would become the most celebrated in American history. The document was signed initially only by John Hancock, president of Congress, and Charles Thomson, its secretary; the famous parchment copy with its fifty-six signatures was engrossed later and signed primarily on August 2, with some delegates signing even later. The date July 4 commemorates the adoption of the text rather than any particular signing. John Adams, who had expected July 2 (the date of the independence vote) to be celebrated, wrote to his wife Abigail that the occasion "ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty."

The Declaration was first read publicly in Philadelphia on July 8, 1776, in the State House yard to a crowd that had gathered after hearing bells summoning them to the event. The reading was followed by celebrations including bonfires, the removal of royal symbols, and the pulling down of a statue of King George III in New York. Copies of the Declaration were dispatched throughout the colonies, where it was read aloud to crowds and reprinted in newspapers. The Liberty Bell, which had summoned citizens to the State House yard, became associated with the Declaration and eventually with the broader cause of American freedom. The public proclamation transformed the Declaration from a congressional resolution into a founding document of the American nation.

Philosophical Significance

The Declaration's opening paragraphs articulate principles that have resonated far beyond their immediate context. The assertion that "all men are created equal" and endowed with "unalienable Rights" established ideals against which American society would measure itself for centuries. Abolitionists invoked the Declaration against slavery; suffragists adapted its language for the Seneca Falls Declaration of 1848; civil rights leaders appealed to its promise of equality. Abraham Lincoln called the Declaration "the electric cord" linking Americans to the founders and "the father of all moral principle." The tension between the Declaration's universal ideals and the partial realization of those ideals has driven much of American political history.

The Declaration also influenced political movements beyond America's borders. French revolutionaries drew on its language and ideas, as did independence movements in Latin America, Europe, and eventually Africa and Asia. Ho Chi Minh quoted the Declaration in proclaiming Vietnamese independence in 1945. The document's influence reflects its articulation of principles—natural rights, popular sovereignty, the right of revolution—that have proved compelling across cultures and centuries. The Declaration established the United States not merely as a new nation but as an experiment in self-government grounded in universal truths, a framing that has shaped American identity and foreign policy from the founding to the present.

Philadelphia Sites

Several Philadelphia sites are associated with the Declaration of Independence. Independence Hall, where Congress debated and adopted the document, is the most significant and can be visited as part of Independence National Historical Park. The Graff House, a reconstruction of the building where Jefferson drafted the Declaration, stands at 7th and Market Streets and includes exhibits on Jefferson's work. The Liberty Bell, long associated with the Declaration despite uncertain historical connections, is displayed in the Liberty Bell Center across from Independence Hall. The Signers' Garden, adjacent to Independence Hall, commemorates the fifty-six men who signed the engrossed parchment. For visitors seeking to understand the Declaration's creation, these sites offer tangible connections to one of the most consequential moments in democratic history.

See Also

• Independence Hall
• Graff House
• Liberty Bell
• Second Continental Congress
• Constitutional Convention